Wednesday, October 30, 2019

Does the way in which accounting represents the world facilitate the Essay - 1

Does the way in which accounting represents the world facilitate the control of organizations - Essay Example They way in which accounting represents the world does not always facilitate the control of organizations. Representation versus control Not every nation has adopted the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) delivered in 2001 by the IASB. Because of this, there are independent and corporate investors that have identified opportunistic tax havens across the world. The ability to utilize foreign business accounting practices as a means to shelter resources continues to cause problems with how other businesses internationally perform their strategic management functions. For instance, Singapore has amended its tax laws as it had not, until 2009, adopted global accounting standards (google.com, 2009). Previously, businesses operating in Singapore maintained the ability to act as corporate and private investor tax havens as financial reporting from businesses in this country were able to manipulate data in a methodology that would be considered illegal in countries using the IFRS. Cost accounting not measured against IFRS, internally, eliminated the need for external auditing consultants, provided opportunity for less fiscal transparency, and allowed for strategic policy formation where allocation of costs was not standardized. What this speaks to is a lack of corporate governance in countries that are not yet fully standardized in the accounting function. Especially in terms of fiscal transparency and auditing practices, the businesses required less control and managers or executives with access to costs had the ability to shuffle currency or provide tax havens for investors with clever allocation of resources. â€Å"Culture is often considered to be one of the most powerful environmental factors affecting the accounting system of a country† (Tsui & Windsor, 2001, p.144). These authors consider accounting to be a â€Å"socio-technical† activity that involves human-based resources and financial resources in a way that is inseparable (Tsui & Windsor, p.145). In collectivist cultures, there is a mentality related to tradition and group affiliation where values are consistent with securing the needs of the group. These values are common in countries like Singapore and India. Thus, there is a resistance to change regarding adoption of international accounting standards that change the scope and policy formation related to resource utilization and fiscal transparency to the rest of the world. â€Å"Differences in accounting practices are manifestations of nationally different cultural systems† (Askary, Pounder & Yazdifar, 2008, p.145). Thus, businesses operating in one collectivist nation might have more focus on expansion whilst an individualistic country such as the United Kingdom might have more focus on developing more cost control by building a culture of lean production philosophy. In this situation, the method of accounting would differ, as would most assuredly those management systems in place in terms of c ontrol. In the individualistic culture that has adopted international standards, the implementation of new technologies to facilitate cost control and inventory control might be organisation-wide, such as new enterprise resource

Monday, October 28, 2019

Halfway House Programs and the Community Essay Example for Free

Halfway House Programs and the Community Essay The use of halfway houses as a starting point for those who were once in prison is a great idea and can be beneficial to not only the individuals who are having to adjust to life outside of prison but also to the community around them. These homes help to stabilize the individual, help them to be able to adjust to life in society again and help them to become better parts of society. There are many who believe that halfway houses are not a good thing and would rather not have them but there are many reasons that these people are not looking at the whole picture and are not looking into the benefits that halfway houses can provide. There are many reasons that the surrounding neighbors and communities could fear a halfway house. Some of these reasons are the stereotypes that are associated with these places. This means that there is the common thoughts and beliefs that those who are in the halfway houses are not truly ready to be reformed and therefore it can be thought that these individuals should remain in prison. This is a misconception as the halfway house provides the individual with stability and helps them to be able to transition into a life outside of prison. The halfway house often provides the individual with a way to be able to find employment, get hooked up with needed medical and other health care services including rehabilitation and mental health, and a way to be able to live until they are able to stand on their own two feet (Welsh and Harris 2009). Without halfway houses these former criminals would be left on their own to find all of these resources and many times in the past the individuals had a hard time finding these things which has resulted in them committing more crimes. With halfway houses the return rate to prison is lower. Another problem that many individuals have with halfway houses is that they do not understand how giving the individual a place to live is really what they deserve. However there are some new programs that are offered in some halfway houses where the perpetrators of crime are forced to pay restitutions to the victims of their crimes. These programs have been successful in the satisfaction for both the perpetrator and the victim. In a recent study on this issue, the results were found to be positive for all that were involved (Bonta, Boyle, Motiuk, and Sonichsen 1983). Another common misconception is that the residents of the halfway house are not ready to be in the real world when they leave and that there is a high rate of repeat criminal offenses. This was looked at by a group of researchers and what was found was that those who had successful completions of the halfway house programs were less likely to have repeat criminal offenses where as those who were not successful in their treatment through halfway houses (Hartman, Friday and Minor 1994). This is very important to note as there are many reasons that an individual would not have a successful completion but then when an individual did have a successful treatment that they should be allowed the benefits of reformation and believed to be reformed and hoping for a better life. Halfway houses can be very beneficial to both the former criminals that inhabit them and the local communities in which they are located. In many cases halfway houses provide a place for these former prisoners to live while they are working on getting back on their feet and becoming stable. Halfway houses and their programs beneficial to the individual as they are not on the street or trying to make it on their own in a world where it is more difficult for them to find a place to rent, obtain employment or anything else. The benefit to the community is that these former criminals are off of the streets and in a place where treatment and supervision is mandatory while they are becoming more stable. Thus they are less likely to commit petty offenses like theft in order to eat or make money for needed items.

Saturday, October 26, 2019

The Titles of Dr. Jekyll in The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde

The Titles of Dr. Jekyll in The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde In the novella The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, Dr. Jekyll held a number of titles, including M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., and F.R.S. These titles indicate that Dr Jekyll was a well educated in man in both medicine and law. The first title, M.D., stands for doctor of medicine. In the mid 1800's (about the time Jekyll would have been educated), medical students attended medical school for approximately 3-4 years (there was no definite length). Their training was based around "natural philosophy": their studies included anatomy, physiology, chemistry, physics, mathematics, therapeutics, biology, surgery, sociology and philosophy. Along with these subjects, students were encouraged to take courses in Latin and Greek. Exceptional students were encouraged to apply to either Oxford or Cambridge: these two schools were the best that England had to offer and can be compared to America's Harvard University in Boston. Things have changed slightly in the last one hundred years or so. Medical school is at least 4 years long (although many students stay in medical school for 5-6 years). Philosophy is no longer the main focus of medical school. The courses that were considered the most important in the medical school 's curriculum (biology, chemistry, physics, mathematics) are now left to the undergraduate colleges to teach the pre-medical students. After medical school, students of the 1800's only had to take a test, and if they passed, they were free to work at any hospital they chose to study the practical branches of their profession. It is no longer that simple. Once finished with school and certification testing, the student begins a rigorous internship (c... ...entific society to researchers in many different fields, such as art and medicine. Fellows would get together to discuss the "natural philosophy." This society was open to anyone with a natural interest in science until 1847. Since then only those persons who have done original work are invited into the society. Indeed Dr. Jekyll was an extraordinarily smart person. It would have taken an enormous amount of time and energy to accomplish all the titles that a man like himself earned. Works Cited Acronyms, Initalisms and Abbreviations Dictionary. 15th ed. 1991. "Trends in Legal Education." Encyclopedia Britannica. 15th ed. 1992. Stevens, Robert. Law School: Legal Education in America from the 1850's to the 1980's. Chapel Hill: The University of NC Press, 1983. Huxley, Thomas H. Science and Education. New York: P.F. Collier and Son, 1854 and 1870.

Thursday, October 24, 2019

Self-Hate in Toni Morrisons The Bluest Eye Essay -- Essays on The Blu

At a time when blue-eyed, pale skin Shirley Temple is idolized by white and black alike, eleven-year-old Pecola Breedlove desperately seeks out beauty for herself. In order to attain beauty in her culture, Pecola must do the impossible: find white beauty. Toni Morrison shows the disastrous effects that colorism and racism can have on a whole culture and how African- Americans will tear each other apart in order to fit into the graces of white society. The desire to be considered beautiful in the white world is so compelling, that the characters in The Bluest Eye loathe their own skin color and feel shame for their culture. These feelings of self-loathing and contempt pass on from the adults to their children, creating a continuous cycle of negativity and self-hate. â€Å"Here was an ugly little black girl asking for beauty†¦A little black girl who wanted to rise up out of the pit of her blackness and see the world with blue eyes† (Morrison, 174). By petitioning for white beauty, Pecola Breedlove is desperately attempting to pull herself out of the pit of blackness. Because Pecola has dark-skin and authentic African-American features, black and white society has conditioned her to believe that she is ugly. Pecola.s physical features ensure her to be a victim of classical racism; classical racism being the notion that the â€Å"physical ugliness of blackness is a sign of a deeper ugliness and depravity† (Taylor, 16). This notion allows the mistreatment of dark-skinned people because their blackness is a link to a â€Å"dark past† and to uncivilized ways. Pecola does not epitomize white society.s standards of beauty because she does not have light skin and trademark blue eyes; therefore, she must be ugly and ba... ...Melus: 19.4 (1994): 109-127. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 24 March 2014. Lobodziec, Agnieszka. â€Å"Theological Models of Black Middle-Class Performance in Toni Morrison.s Novels.† Black Theology: An International Journal 8.1 (2010): 32-52. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 24 March 2014. McKittrick, Katherine. â€Å"Black and „Cause I.m Black I.m Blue.: transverse racial geographies in Toni Morrison.s The Bluest Eye.† Gender, Place & Culture: A Journal of Feminist Geography 7.2 (2000): 125. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 24 March 2014. Morrison, Toni. The Bluest Eye. New York: Penguin, 1970. Print. Taylor, Paul C. â€Å"Malcom.s Conk and Danto.s Colors; or Four Logical Petitions Concerning Race, Beauty, and Aesthetics.† Journal of Aesthetics & Art Criticism 57.1 (2000): 16-20. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 23 March 2014.

Wednesday, October 23, 2019

Economic Globalization Essay

Just after the Second World War, the world faced yet another economic set back in the name of cold war. The lengthy cold war however came to an end with the decline of the Soviet Union and the collapse o the Berlin wall. The world market opened up with the opening of free market in the individual states that had split from the former Soviet Union plus other nations of the Eastern Europe (Staley 2008). The Eastern Europe was very critical player for increased globalization in the 1990s. Most of the nations in the region joined the world trade organization and played a significant role as a supply foundation in to the western countries. China’s role in the cold war was a swift one and by the time the cold war was culminating, it had established itself in Asia as the economic stronghold serving as a market and supplier to Japan and other developed nations in the region. China by that time exported about 15% of the total world export. The United States on the other hand increased its imports from the South America by 4% from 11% in 1960 to around 16% in 1990 (Staley 2008). These were the results of market globalization and improved policies. Emerging Economies The developing countries have improved drastically and have found a place in the world economy as critical players. These countries have actually increased the value of global economy as they are rapidly developing in terms of industrialization and are being termed s emerging market economies as well. Example of emerging economies are china an India, which have invested in information technology related industries that are a great influence on the world economy, which is also supported by worldwide economic connection (Marber 2008). Information technology has played a role in facilitating economic growth in most of the countries but it has also come with some negative features which are a threat to economic growth. The major set back in the information technology field was the inventory adjustments that were introduced in 2000. This brought about stagnation and many counties were affected including the US, Japan and most of the European nations.

Tuesday, October 22, 2019

Sociology Police Brutality Essay

Sociology Police Brutality Essay Sociology: Police Brutality Essay According to dictionary.com, deviance is one that differs from a norm, especially a person who behavior and attitudes differ from accepted social standards. Inequality however simply means the condition of being unequal, lack of equality or disparity. Through out this paper, I will be discussing a topic dealing with race, class and gender inequality. Many things have been happening in our society, and I believe deviance and inequality is the reason for most of these situations. This paper will shed some light into our daily problems and how they can be solve with more clarity. One of the topics dealing with race inequality in our society would have to be police brutality to minorities. Police are known to use excessive force towards minorities, which leads to endless bloodshed, bruises, and bullet wounds and in most cases death. It would seem that the police have some kind of inequality to minorities. In the case of Mike Brown, he was shot down simply because he looked the way he did. This is a great example of race inequality because he was treated different due to the color of his skin. It would seem many police officers released they have the power to not only arrest but also use deadly force in certain situations. Now one can clearly say many officers of the law abused these powers and aren’t afraid of the end results. A perfect example would be the case of Scott Olsen; a 24-year-old male was shot in the head with a tear gas canister due to being a part of a peaceful protest in California. Scott was hospitalized for more than month due to having a fractured skull. After bringing awareness of this police brutality to the state, no officer was punished or even suspended for this action. However, Scott Olsen was just one over five thousand cases of police misconduct. Police brutality has been increasing exponentially though out the years. More than three hundred cases of police brutality to minorities have been linked since the beginning of 2 015. It seems being African American is not safe enough around the police anymore. It would seem this police shoot and eliminate African Americans faster than any other ethnic group. It is more than obvious that these race and class are divided widely through out America. Another form of inequality in our current society can be found in the group of gender. In most

Monday, October 21, 2019

Poli-Sci essays

Poli-Sci essays In our society government system programs often do reach those people who are in need the most. In the 1960s there was a war on poverty and $7 billion dollars was put into this war by federal, state, and local governments. Even though there was so much money invested, the poor remained largely untouched. Programs such as Social Security, workers compensation, unemployment, and disability, distribute far more money to the middle class than to the lower ones. There are some programs that actually work, but those still only reach the minority of those actually in need. Programs such as Medicaid, food stamps, subsidized housing, and unemployment benefits are a few that actually help. The way these programs were run, appear to be radical liberalist. It appears that they put an effort in to help the poor, but did not take the time to see if it was going to the right people. Things have just gotten worse many cuts have taken place in the programs and the money is being moved to plac es where the more powerful want it. As they take away these programs, Classic liberalism is becoming more into view. Any chance for the poor to move into higher class gets slimmer and slimmer. This leaves the poor to subservience to the rich. In our society the rich are getting richer and the poor are getting poorer. This is not the way it should be, there needs to be more programs for the needy and all that power needs to be taken away from the oligarchs, hiding in the system to make themselves richer. Housing is another policy that reflects the many inequalities in our society. Homeowners in the richest 20% of our population receive almost 60% of housing subsidies in the form of property tax exemptions, interest deductions, and capital gains deferral on housing sales. Only one-quarter of poor households receive any kind of housing subsidy. In policies like these it is just the rich trying to help the rich make more money. Obviously this ...

Sunday, October 20, 2019

5 Study Habits You Should Develop in College

5 Study Habits You Should Develop in College Studying isn’t the most fun thing you’ll ever do at college (that spot is reserved for Ultimate Star Wars Strip Poker). Still, if you haven’t learned how to study by the time you’ve made it this far into your educational career, you may be in big trouble. Statistics from the U.S. News and World Report say that as many as 3 out of 10 college freshman will drop out due to poor grades during their first year. In order to keep yourself from becoming a statistic, you need some study hacks. That’s why we’ve compiled the 5 best and most productive study habits you can develop before its too late. Remember, having a worry-free semester of straight A’s is much more fun than failing out and missing your calling as a Jedi Poker Master. Skip the Highlighting, Summarizing, and Mental Imagery Although these are things you’ve been taught to do since you were small, research published in Psychological Science in the Public Interest basically calls your 4th grade teacher a liar. The research says that things like highlighting texts, summarizing texts, and mental imagery of facts are some of the least effective study habits you can pick up. Other things to avoid are re-reading texts and using word mnemonics to memorizing a new language. Go the Distance The best studying is done in small bursts over a longer period of time. So, instead of cramming for an exam just before it hits, study in small increments every day. Not only is this easier on your schedule (you don’t have to give up a whole night of sleep), but you will retain the information longer, as well. Use Technology to S.O.A.R The recent study published in The Journal of Educational Psychology highlighted that technology is only as good as your study habits. Students who are using their computers to reread articles or drill information perform half as well as students who are using their technology to synthesize material in new ways. The author of the study, Ken Kiewra, says that the best students use the S.O.A.R method: Select key lesson ideas. Organize information with comparative charts. Associate ideas to create meaningful connections. Regulate learning through practice. Although this sounds like a lot of work, it’s actually not. By thinking more critically about your information through comparisons and connections, and incorporating small daily study sessions, you are building a neural network for your new information that allows you to access it quickly whenever you need it. Turn Off the Music While you might think that you study better with the music on, there is significant research that shows it can impair your recall of the topic you’re studying. Nick Perham, a professor at the University of Wales Health Sciences School, completed research that showed music – whether you like it or not – impairs your ability to remember even simple things. And, although music with fewer chord and musical variations (like classical music) impair memory less than Grunge Metal, neither is as effective as studying in a quiet place. Mix it Up This applies not only to types of things you’re studying, but to location. Scientists found in the Psychological Science in the Public Interest study that students who change up the kinds of review questions they do perform better on exams. For example, they study a math problem, then follow it up with a psychology question. In addition, if you vary where you study when you do a new type of review, your brain will â€Å"anchor† the new information better. So, try the couch, then the table, then your bedroom. When it comes time to recall the information, your brain will have a better time if it can recall a unique place, time, or position you learned it in. Studying is a huge part of your college life, but it doesn’t have to take up all of your time. With a little good advice and a daily dose of studying, you can be acing all of your exams quicker than you think. Just make sure that you are avoiding the time-sucking activities that don’t work, and use your study sessions in a way that keeps your information memorable and easy to access. Can you think of some more useful study habits? Tell us! We want to hear from you!

Saturday, October 19, 2019

Conflicts in Measuring Progress - Megacity in Asia (Seoul) Essay

Conflicts in Measuring Progress - Megacity in Asia (Seoul) - Essay Example The city’s rapid expansion and transformation comes with challenges in addition to the positive impacts. It is therefore worthwhile to explore impacts of urbanization in the city of Seoul considering issues of sustainability, effects to the environment, housing, transport systems and the overall quality of life. Though it was originally a phenomenon of cities from the west, urbanization has invaded even cities in Asia. According to (Clark, 2003), the world society is fast become urban in characteristic and this can now be applied to Seoul. As a result of an explosion in population, Seoul’s urbanization impacts are unique as compared to has been observed elsewhere such as in America and Europe. The periods from 1960 through the 1970s have seen South Korea grow at a rate of 10% economically. Per capita income was $76 in the year 1970 and has grown to more than $19,000 in just forty years; overall GDP is close to $ one trillion. Being the country’s biggest city and trade hub, the population of Seoul has increased by more than 500% since the year 1960; rural urban migration especially to Seoul has been on the rise. Though it sits on just 0.61% of South Korea’s total area, 84% of institutions and agencies of government, 88% of the country’s biggest companies and 75% o f major universities are hosted by Seoul. An excess of 65% in terms of financial/bank transactions are done in this city (Jeon, 2005 P.5). There is no other city across the globe taking an economic burden matching that of Seoul. Only 20sq.m of residential space is available per individual at the moment, this is extremely low as compared to other developed cities like New York, London and Paris. Tokyo has 55sq.m per person even though is considered highly populated. Basing on square kilometers, Seoul’s is 23,908 which is denser than Tokyo’s 7,099 persons. On the Gini index of income inequality Seoul scores 0.36,

Friday, October 18, 2019

Leadership Development Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Leadership Development - Assignment Example From this discussion it is clear that  the Command and Control Methodology which defines the public safety leadership is no longer viable. Such obedience often fostered insubordination and passivity and did not promote creativity. Command and control management style often hampered the full implementation of community policing. The paramilitary approach that was emphasized in the command and control methodology also neglects the distinction between police and soldier developments. Law enforcement departments now emphasize on strategic management and accountability. It helps in periodically assessing how the police agencies can achieve their goals.As the study highlights an effective public safety leader has high standards for safe behavior that are consistently demonstrated while advocating safety. The best leaders make sure that their decisions reflect safety their communications are clear on safety, and that they consistently observe & coach others on the safety standards. They a re approachable and open to inputs. An effective public safety leader always demonstrate ethical conduct and honesty in addition to maintaining responsibility of the trust and confidence of the public, the regulator, corporation, employees, shareholders and community. They are transparent and self critical. Technical capabilities are crucial for every public safety leaders as they are involved in daily technical decisions that have immediate and long term implication.   

Social work critical thinking essay. book-Blaming The Victim by Essay

Social work critical thinking . book-Blaming The Victim by William Ryan - Essay Example The child’s upbringing is brought up repeatedly as an excuse for the lower educational levels of the minorities. The article mentions the influence of the home environment and the lack of experiences as a reason for hindered learning. It goes on to say that these differences in the home environment cause a barrier to education by not teaching the black student with, â€Å"inadequate preparation for the reality of the modern urban school.† (37) Integration became the solution for the poor educational system. So rather than facing the true problem, the victim is blamed and, â€Å"Uneducated parents, crowded living quarters, absence of books, family disinterest in education—all combine to handicap the poor black child as he enters the school system.† (33) Thus not only blaming the victim, but also instilling a belief in negative stereotypical beliefs about the victims. So not only is the child and his upbringing blamed for the lack of education, the inequality is justified by finding defects in the child while blaming. One instance of finding defect is that it was believed that being poor led to a â€Å"functional inferiority.† The Coleman Report was considered comprehensive. Coleman’s studies found that â€Å"blackness and low achievement are highly correlated†. This research blamed the victim by assuming that because white children learn more, black children learn less. Repeatedly, the blame returns to the home environment, blaming the victim for an upbringing. Researchers based findings on how far a student would go based on number of newspapers in the home, educational level of father and mother, books in the home, etc. (51) The research determined that there were more opportunities, more preparations for college and more resources available for whites. According to the author, the Coleman Report blames the victim based on the family background, treating it as â€Å"a cause-and-effect

Thursday, October 17, 2019

Female Offenders( AfricanAmerican women) Research Paper

Female Offenders( AfricanAmerican women) - Research Paper Example These African Americans are serving mostly for non violent crimes which include property disputes. These African Americans face a lot of challenges while in the prison and some special services are also being provided to these women so that they can avoid the problems (Snell 1994; Sabol et al 2007). It has been seen that many of the problems that women face in the prison are due to the inefficiencies of the system which have not been corrected by the authorities concerned. A problem for most of the incarcerated females is that they cannot be accommodated in places nearby their home. This is because few facilities allow the accommodation of female prisoners. In United States it has been seen that women in prison are usually a hundred miles away from their child’s residence. It is stated that â€Å"more than 60 % of all women are incarcerated more than one hundred miles from their child’s place of residence† (Human Rights Watch 1996). This problem is related to the families of the female offenders as these females cannot remain in contact with their family. Economic resources of the African American women are low and hence it becomes even more difficult for the family to pay visits to the females. Female prisoners are kept in a high security zone where they c annot be harmed in anyway. This high security zone can prove to be problematic for them as they are discriminated and misclassified accordingly in these high security zones. The facilities available these days in the prisons are not enough to provide the women with the basic rights. The hygiene and healthcare systems of the prison were originally established for men and hence these African American women have to suffer at the hands of the authorities. Gynecological examination is not yet much prevalent in the prison systems of the United States. It has also been seen that many African American women are incarcerated for the use of drugs but these

Reducing Secondhand Smoke on Children Research Paper - 4

Reducing Secondhand Smoke on Children - Research Paper Example So the one sure shot and authentic way of curtailing second hand smoke in the case of children is to convince the adults and guardians to quit smoking. Once the parents and guardians quit smoking it automatically removes the source of secondhand smoke at home and in the family car where the children are most vulnerable of catching on secondhand smoke and fumes (Harutyunyan et al., 2013). If this is not possible than the second best option is to request the family members and people in general not to smoke at home and in the family car (Harutyunyan et al., 2013). Besides the parents need to make it a point to assure that the people who take care of children like babysitters and nannies do not smoke around children. The others possible place where children could get exposed to secondhand smoke are the places, including the public places where smoking is allowed (Gordon, Friel, & McGranachan, 2012). Any child visiting such a place, including say a public space is poised to get exposed to secondhand smoke. So parents and guardians should look to it that they do not visit such places with their children where smoking is allowed. Keeping children away from public places where smoking is allowed is one salient way of cutting the secondhand smoke on children (Stosic, Milutinovic, Lazarevic, Blagojevic, & Tadic, 2012). This includes choosing such restaurants and recreational places which are smoke free or where smoking is not allowed (Stoic et al., 2012). This also tends to include such indoor places where smoking is allowed and where children are more likely to get exposed to secondhand smoking. It is a known fact that secondhand smoke causes greater harm when it is inhaled at such places which are c losed or are not well ventilated. The parents and guardians do need to understand the fact that secondhand smoke is utterly hazardous and could wreck havoc on the health and well being of

Wednesday, October 16, 2019

Female Offenders( AfricanAmerican women) Research Paper

Female Offenders( AfricanAmerican women) - Research Paper Example These African Americans are serving mostly for non violent crimes which include property disputes. These African Americans face a lot of challenges while in the prison and some special services are also being provided to these women so that they can avoid the problems (Snell 1994; Sabol et al 2007). It has been seen that many of the problems that women face in the prison are due to the inefficiencies of the system which have not been corrected by the authorities concerned. A problem for most of the incarcerated females is that they cannot be accommodated in places nearby their home. This is because few facilities allow the accommodation of female prisoners. In United States it has been seen that women in prison are usually a hundred miles away from their child’s residence. It is stated that â€Å"more than 60 % of all women are incarcerated more than one hundred miles from their child’s place of residence† (Human Rights Watch 1996). This problem is related to the families of the female offenders as these females cannot remain in contact with their family. Economic resources of the African American women are low and hence it becomes even more difficult for the family to pay visits to the females. Female prisoners are kept in a high security zone where they c annot be harmed in anyway. This high security zone can prove to be problematic for them as they are discriminated and misclassified accordingly in these high security zones. The facilities available these days in the prisons are not enough to provide the women with the basic rights. The hygiene and healthcare systems of the prison were originally established for men and hence these African American women have to suffer at the hands of the authorities. Gynecological examination is not yet much prevalent in the prison systems of the United States. It has also been seen that many African American women are incarcerated for the use of drugs but these

Tuesday, October 15, 2019

What were the main economic and institutional differences between the Term Paper

What were the main economic and institutional differences between the studio system of the 1930s and 1940s and 'new Hollywood' post-1975 - Term Paper Example 20). A lot of talent was drained from western countries and the Hollywood nurtured that talent by providing them lucrative benefits and rich culture. The staring era of films in the Hollywood was the era of silent movies and the messages were delivered by the body language, sounds, and the sequence and some time running the text on the screen. However, the economic, technological and institutional transformation occurred around the world revolutionized cinematic activities and Hollywood witnessed major changes in the studio system during different eras. ... Some of the movies are inspired by the true events and some of them are inspired by the fabricated plots, fictions and the legends. Classical Era Types of the movies in the classical era (classical studio) As it seems clear by the name that the classical movies had class, these movies were based on the Fictional and real plots. Irrespective of the time frame, both the movies based on the idealism and realism has been presented and has become hit on the box office. The combination of the real situation has also been used in some movies like the De Vinci Code (2006) and it has been done irrespective of the time frame. Either the classical movies or the modern movies both have been reflecting the contemporary culture in their entities but the difference is the time, so understanding the difference of time can put a light on the above mentioned criteria of the question. The classical era had many glamorous stars which provided synergies to the film industry of that super glamorous era, a nd the faith killing beauties were cast with the support of solid stories. The beautiful faces were not the only criteria there, but the strong script was the trade mark of that era which is still believed as the golden era of the film industry Solid plots with strong theme and story Both Gone with the Wind (1939) and The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939) were based on the bestselling novels and both movies were released in the same years. The 1930-40 was an era when the cream of best writer, directors and actors were coming there and it was a heaven for them (Chaplin, 2003, p. 91). A good work was immediately noticed in the Hollywood, and the feasibilities were made for them to release films on them. The industrialization affected the film industry and the base for

Management Perspectives Essay Example for Free

Management Perspectives Essay A questionnaire was sent to a member of top management of seventy-six firms that have adopted EVA? type performance measures, forty of these firms having included the measure in their incentive compensation. Based on the respondents’ answers, EVA? erformance measures appear to help align the interests of management with those of the firm’s shareholders with the emphasis shifting from bottom-line earnings to earning more than the cost of employed capital. The responses are compared with prior empirical work. In most cases, the observed results of management actions is consistent with the responses from this survey. This paper resulted from work done for my dissertation from the University of Washington. I wish to thank my committee members Gary Biddle, Robert Bowen, Eric Noreen, Terry Shevlin, and Naomi Soderstrom.

Monday, October 14, 2019

A Case Analysis On Arik Air Nigeria Commerce Essay

A Case Analysis On Arik Air Nigeria Commerce Essay This essay is a case analysis on Arik air Nigeria and will therefore seek to identify the major threats and opportunity in the environment, analyse the strength and weakness of the company, identify the strategic position of Arik air, and suggest a strategy to be adopted by the airline in an effort to sustain its competitive advantage. BACKGROUND Arik Air is Nigerias biggest indigenous commercial airline offering domestic flights to major cities in Nigeria and with an expanding network of regional and international flight operations to major cities in the world (Eze, 2010). Presently, Arik Air flies to 17 Domestic destinations in Nigeria and 8 International destinations (Arik air, 2010: Online). Arik Air Nigeria The companys corporate mission is: To be a safe and reliable airline by selecting and operating new, modern aircraft and by employing the most experienced and efficient staff. (Airkair, 2010: Online) Vision: To make Nigeria proud of its aviation industry (Arikair, 2010: Online) Strategic Intent: Ariks strategic intent is to be the preferred airline carrier of choice in West Africa. (Airk Air, 2010: Online) EXTERNAL ANALYSIS: The external analysis was conducted using PESTEL Framework and Porters five forces as the basic tools (Thompson, 1997; Luffman et al, 1996; Welsh, 2005; Johnson et al, 2009) in an effort to understand the effect of changing environment on Arik Airs operation. The findings based on pestel framework (See Appendix 1) and Posters five forces (See Appendix 2) are as follows: An analysis of the political environment revealed that governments around the world are tightening immigration regulations due to the surge in terrorism the implication of which is a reduction in the number of global traveller thus posing a threat to airline including Arik Air. (Stevermen, 2009; Cartar, 2010). However liberalization and Deregulation efforts are being made in several regions of the world with Asia setting a target for the full liberalization of its skies by the year 2015. This is projected to boost aviation industry performance by creating avenue for fair competition platform between more established airlines and the growing competitors like Arik Air(Bailey, 1986; Smith Cox, 2007; Ting, 2008). The rising fuel price is a matter of economic concern in the world, with Aviation fuel price estimated at $85 per barrel (IATA, 2010: online) the implication of which is an increase in running cost for airlines and this poses a high threat to Airlines. However, there is optimism that a global economic recovery is on the way with the world economy expected to grow 2.7% in 2010 (World Bank, 2010: Online) and the aviation industry is forecasted to reduce its loss from $5.8 Billion in 2009 to $2.8 Billion in 2010. (Financial Times, 2010). The World travel tourism council (2010) projects an increase in the number of holiday travellers in 2010 with further growth expected in 2011. The 2010 world cup is expected to boost travel to Africa in 2010 (Eberl, 2010). Percentage change vs. 05-Mar-10 Index* $/b cts/gal $/mt 1 week ago 1 month ago 1 year ago Jet Fuel Price 243.3 89.0 211.9 701.4 3.4% 4.1% 80.3% Source: IATA (2010: Online) source from Platts * 100 in 2000 (87 cts/gal) Impact on this years fuel bill of the global airline industry: New fuel price average for 2010 Impact on 2010 fuel bill $85.5/b +$13 billion Estimated by IATA Source: IATA (2010: Online) With heightened security checks and the introduction of the full body scan at airport, there are concerns over the privacy infringement due to the utilisation of the full body scan. (McDonough, 2010). Arik air is in the traditional full service airline industry offering pre-flight, in-flight, and post flight services to customers and its competitors in the industry include Virgin Atlantic, British Airways, Air France, Lufthansa, Emirate, Qatar Airline and South African Airways all of which are established airlines with good brand image. An industry analysis revealed as follows (See Appendix 2): there is high competitive rivalry within the industry; barrier to new entrant is high due to the enormous capital required to start an airline; buyers have a high bargaining power due to the various options of airlines available to them and suppliers have a medium bargaining power. INTERNAL ANALYSIS: The internal analysis was conducted through an evaluation of the resource based view of strategy (resources and competencies) (Mahoney Pandian, 1992; Johnson et al, 2009); as well as competitive advantage; value chain and VRIO (Johnson et al, 2009; Thompson, 1997; Luffman et al, 1996) to identify the strengths and weakness of the company. (See Appendix) UNIQUE RESOURCE(S) AND CORE COMPETENCIES (See appendix 3 for the list of tangible and intangible resources of the company) Arik Airs unique resource is its chairman who is an elder statesman in Nigeria with an easy access to finance while its core competencies are its excellent customer relations skill and reliability COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE Arik air derives its competitive advantage from a unique merge of low price and quality service. This is based on its vast research and unique understanding of the West African market need for quality service at affordable prices and the support it receives from the Nigerian government and some other West African countries through concession and subsidies which thus reduces its operational cost and affords it a lower price than competitors (William, 2010; Russell, 2008; Abioye Ezeobi, 2008). THE VALUE CHAIN (See appendix 4) An evaluation of Arik Airs value chain activity revels as follows: The Inbound logistics which involve the delivery of fuel for the aircraft, in-flight meals, cleaning of the aircraft in preparation for a flight is outsourced (procurement) through an effective human resource management practice in an effort to reduce amount of people employed by the airline and reduce fixed operational costs. Arik with its strong finance base utilises an integrated ICT technology (Infrastructure/technology) to manage and support its operation by enabling online bookings, ticket purchase and flight check-in in an effort to reduce operational cost of employment. To ensure safety/reliability, a strict maintenance of its fleets is outsourced and an effective human resource management policy is put in place (training and reward) to promote employee commitment and performance (Arik, 2010: Online; Banfield Kay, 2008). Outbound logistics with regard to customers luggage is coordinated and monitored with a technological coding and is outsourced to Sachol to ensure the safety of customers property and to sustain Arik Airs reliability (Airkair, 2010: Online, Sachol, 2010: Online) while an extensive marketing is implemented through the media to promote sales. This enables Arik air to achieve its competitive advantage through a systemic integration of technology (speedy services and reduced operational cost), human resource management (ensures quality delivery of services by employees) and a firm infrastructure to support its primary activities thus enabling the airline to deliver quality services at reduced prices in comparison to competitors. VRIO: The VRIO examines the sustainability of a firms competitive advantage (Johnson et al, 2008); Arik Air offers its low priced fares with excellent in-flight services unparallel to none offered by any Nigerian airline (Eze, 2010) which implies that its services are valuable and rear. However this can be imitated by other airline thus Arik air enjoys a Temporary competitive advantage (Khanna, 2010) In the airline industry the critical success factors are: a good brand image; good quality service; good customer relations; cost effectiveness; Reliability; safety. (Svein Vidar, 2004; Bijan Kenneth, 2005). Judging by the critical success factors in the airline industry, Arik Airs performance is standard in the industry since the airlines services are affordable, safety is given high priority, it offers good customer service, and is reliable. However, theres need to develop the Arik brand beyond West Africa. SWOT ANALYSIS (Kotler et al, 2009) See Appendix 4 Arik airs strengths are its highly skilled workforce with excellent ethical conduct and customer relations (Some of the Best in the industry), the easy access to finance or funding, the airlines fleets of aircraft (mostly new), speed in service delivery and low operational cost while the weaknesses are the brand image (still unrecognised outside west Africa), flights offering to only 8 international destination (Williams, 2010). In consideration of Ariks strengths and weaknesses, the external environment provides opportunities as well as threats for Arik air. The identified opportunities are an increase in earnings due to a projected increase in the numbers of global travellers (World travel tourism council, 2010); expanding the network of flight destination due to the expected liberalisation of skies in Asia and the African continent (Bailey, 1986; Smith Cox, 2007; Ting, 2008) However, the threats in the environment include the unstable global fuel price, increased terrorism scare s, continued government subsidy for competitors airlines which reduces the open market competition and the expected mergers in the airline industry which might result in the dominance of a few big airline. Arik Airs plans to increase its market share in Nigeria and West Africa and equally targets an expansion its operation across Europe, North America and Asia but Arik Air is faced with immense industry competition on international destinations from the established airline (Virgin, Bristish Airways, Emirate) and The threats global economic recession which has slowed the expected growth of the airline. The competitive strategy adopted by Arik is the Hybrid strategy (see appendix 4). This strategy allows the airline to maintain its low cost base thus enabling it to compete on low price relative to competitors with sustainable differentiation. However, the low price might impede the airline ability to obtain the maximum returns possible. (Johnson et al, 2009) STRATEGIC OPTIONS: Arik air is experiencing a decline in its projected market growth caused by the increase competition in airline industries; the various strategic options available to Arik Air are evaluated simultaneously below with the aid of TOWS and Ansoff Matrix (Khanna, 2010; Johnson et al, 2009). (See Appendix 5: Tables 3 4): Strategy 1 Strength-Opportunity/Market Development Arik Airs key strengths of easy access to finance and excellent customer service practices can be explored based on the identified opportunity in the macro environment (politics) stemming from the planned liberalisation of skies in Asia and Africa (Bailey, 1986; Smith Cox, 2007; Ting, 2008). The strategy option this provides Arik Air is Market Development. The Airline can increase its fleets of aircraft by purchasing additional aircrafts, employing and training additional workforce, and increasing the route options of the airlines to more destinations in Asia and Africa Strategy 2 Strength-Weakness/ Market Penetration Market penetration is another strategic option available to Arik air. By utilising this strategy, Arik air can utilise its strong financial capability to bankroll an extensive marketing exploit to improve the brand image of the airline. This will create awareness for the Arik brand thus, enabling the airline to gain a greater market share in its present markets. However, the heightened competition in the industry poses a genuine threat to this strategy. Strategy 3 Strength-Threat/Diversification The on-going merger in the industry which may result in a few dominant airlines is a threat to Arik air. Arik with its easy access to finance can adopt a related diversification into the budget airline industry (horizontal integration) with the option of acquiring Virgin Nigeria (low cost low frills airline) (Attitude travel, 2010: Online) This will enable Arik air to optimally minimize the threat posed by merger of the more established operators by spreading its risk and making it a formidable competitor. Strategy 4 Weakness -Opportunity/Product Development The weak brand identity of Arik Air outside West Africa is one of the airlines weaknesses. Arik can overcome this weakness by ensuring that the flight experience of its customers remains memorable with an excellence in customer service at all time. The company can equally offer new products such as travel miles accumulation/flyers club membership for its customers as a Product Development Strategy. Strategy 5 Weakness -threat/Consolidation The proposed merger in the airline industry which might result in a few dominant airlines is a major threat to a growing airline like Arik airs weak brand identity; Arik can adopt any option of consolidation (Johnson et a, 2009) to defend its market share by merging with some established airline like Qatar Air or Emirate in order to ensure the sustainability of the business. The problem however is the possible loss of Ariks brand identity sue to such consolidation (Johnson et al, 2009) SELECTED STRATEGY After a thorough evaluation of the strategic options available to Arik air, the most viable option for the airline to adopt is a related diversification of the companys operations into the no-frills airline industry (a form of concentric diversification) (Mintzberg et al, 2003; Johnson et al, 2009). As suggested by Johnson et al (2009), related diversification allows a company to expand by utilising its existing infrastructure, resources, competencies and strengths in a new trade of similar capacity or intricacies. Therefore by this strategy, Arik air can capitalise on its strong financial strength in acquiring Virgin Nigeria (a no frill airline in Nigeria) (Attitude travel, 2010) or may purchase additional aircrafts to its fleets to cater exclusively for the no frills service operations while still utilising some of the companys existing technological infrastructure to cater for online bookings and check-ins (without incurring additional cost of employment). This is because there is evident potential synergy between the new business (a no-frills flight operation) and the core one, based on a common facility, asset, channel, skill, even opportunity. (Mintzberg et al, 2003:124) CONCLUSION To conclude, the introduction/inclusion of the no-frills airline options will afford Arik air no increased workforce requirement (due to the low service requirement of no-frill operations thus resulting in reduced operational cost); spread its market risk; enable greater efficiency, and will give commuters a greater variety to choose from among the Arik brand thus increasing the potential customer base of the airline. The adoption of diversification strategy by Arik air is a sustainable option for the airline due to the fact that there is presently only one no-frills airline in West Africa (Virgin Nigeria) (Attitude travel, 2010) which Arik air has the option of acquiring in order to build its business and booster its market share. However should the option of acquiring Virgin Nigeria not be chosen, Ariks reliability and brand identity in West Africa is sufficient to sustain the success of the diversification exercise thus ensuring Arik airs market growth. APPENDIXES (Appendix 1) PESTEL Analysis Political: Government subsidies for flag carriers: Flag carriers benefit from subsidies and cash injection from the government, relaxed accessed to loans, reduction in airport service and landing fees, subsidies on fuel and fiscal privileges. (The international chambers of commerce, 1995) Employment regulations: Countries differing employment regulations and trade union laws which Scholars have identified to a considerable affect the operational activities of organisations. (Harris et al, 2003; Deirdre, 2005) Immigration: The increasing global terrorism threats is resulting in governments around the world tightening immigration regulations which in turn might result in a reduction in the number of traveller around the world (Stevermen, 2009; Cartar, 2010) Deregulation: The deregulation of the aviation industry will provide an avenue for improved market conditions that will promote growth in the industry and remove the barriers to entry for new airlines thus allowing for effective market competition. (Bailey, 1986; Smith Cox, 2007) Liberalization of skies: Asia hopes to achieve a full liberalization of its airspace by 2015 and has put up a round map to achieve that. (Ting, 2008) Economic: Unstable Fuel price: The rising fuel price is estimated to result in a $13billion increase in 2010 oil bill with fuel prices put at $85/barrel. See appendix 1 (IATA, 2010: Online) Global economy recovery: The World Bank projects that a global economy recovery is on the way with a 2.7% growth expected in 2010 (World Bank, 2010: online) the aviation industry is projected to make a loss of $2.8billion in 2010 down from $5.8 billion made in 2009 (Financial Times, 2010) Mergers in the industry: The airline industry is undergoing transformation as airlines are announcing merger plans (Leung, 2010; Clark, 2010) Social: The World travel tourism council (2010) projects an increase in the number of holiday travellers in 2010 with further growth expected in 2011. Furthermore the 2010 world cup is expected to boost travel to Africa in 2010 (Eberl, 2010). There are concerns over the introduction of the full body scan at airport over the privacy infringement (McDonough, 2010). Technology: Terrorism threats, has prompted an increase in security screening in many airports with the introduction of the Full body scan (McDonough, 2010). New Air Traffic Control (ATC) technologies have been developed for commercial airlines one of which is ADS-B. (Karp, 2010) Environmental: In an effort for airlines to go green the International Air Transport Association (IATA) plans to cut CO2 emission by 1.5Million tonnes in 2010. (IATA, 2010: Online) Legal: The international air transport association (IATA) is to sign a data sharing agreement with the EU, US and ICAO (IATA, 2010: online). Furthermore, there are restrictions on mergers and acquisitions in the airline industry. (Appendix 2) Porters 5 Forces Threat of Entry: There is relatively low threat of entry to the industry based on the high capital requirement of starting an airline. Furthermore the airline industry is presently making a loss (IATA, 2010) which makes it unattractive to many investors thus reducing the numbers of possible entrant. Threat of substitute: Substitutes to airline are Trains, Automobiles and Ship. The threat posed by these is relative to the intended destination, time and cost analysis by the customers (Givoni, 2009). For National and Regional travels, these substitutes pose an increased threat to the airline industry due to the cheaper prices they offer with particular reference to travel by automobiles and/or trains. However, this threat is low on transatlantic travels. Bargaining Power of Suppliers: Scholars have argued that the present global market condition is tending towards buyers market (Kotler et al, 2009). This is also made evident by aircraft manufacturers seeking the greater participation of airlines in the design of their aircrafts customising. However due to high switching cost in the airline industry, the bargaining power of the supplier is medium. (Kotler et al, 2009) Bargaining Power of Buyer: Consumers have a high degree of options to choose from and this allows them a great bargaining power. (Kotler et al, 2010) Competitive Rivalry: The airline industry is highly competitive and there is prevalent merger going on in the industry in an effort to cut cost and improve efficiency. (Leung, 2010; Clark, 2010) and there is a high exist barrier Fig 3 Porters five forces: Source: Johnson et al (2009: 31) adapted from Porter (1984) (Appendix 3) Table 1 Arik Airs Resources Tangible Resources Intangible Resources Fleets of Aircraft (Physical resources) Buildings (Physical resources) Capital, Shareholders, Bankers (Financial resources) Highly skilled Employees (Human resource) Brand Customer database Business system Source: adapted from Slack et al, 2009 The aircraft fleets are as follows (Arik Air, 2010: Online) Two (2) Airbus A340-542, manufacture date: 2008-2009 with a Seat capacity of 237; Three (3) Boeing 737-800NG, Manufacture date: 2009 has a seat capacity of 148; Six (6) Boeing 737-700NG, Manufacture date: 2007-2008, has a seat capacity of 131-149; Three (3) Boeing 737-700, Manufacture date: 2001, has seat capacity of 124; Two (2) Boeing 737-300, Manufacture date: 1989, has seat capacity of 126; Four (4) Bombardier CRJ-900, Manufacture date: 2005-2007, seat capacity of 74; Two (2) Bombardier Dash 8 Q400, Manufacture date: 2009, has seat capacity of 72; Three (3) Bombardier Dash 8 Q300, Manufacture: 2001-2002, with seat capacity of 50; Four (4) Fokker 50, Manufacture date: 1990, seat capacity of 51; Two (2) Hawker HS 125-800XP, Manufacture date: 2004, seat capacity of 8. (Appendix 4) Table 2 SWOT Internal Origin Strengths highly skilled workforce with excellent ethical conduct and customer relations the easy access to finance or funding, the airlines fleets of aircraft (mostly new), -speed in service delivery and -low operational cost Weakness the brand image (still widely unrecognised outside west Africa) -Limited flight offering to 17 local and only 8 international destination External Origin Opportunities -increase in the numbers of global travellers expanding the network of flight destination due to the expected liberalisation of skies in Asia and the African continent Threats -unstable global fuel price, -increased terrorism scares, government subsidy for competitors -dominance of a few big players due to merger. Source: Adapted from Kotler et al (2009:101) Fig 4 Source: Marketing teacher (2010: Online) adapted from Bowman (1995) (Appendix 5) Table 3 TOWS analysis of Arik Air Nigeria. SW Strategy that use strength to overcome weakness Strategy 2- Market Penetration Opportunity -Increase in the numbers of global travellers expanding the network of flight destination due to the expected liberalisation of skies in Asia and the African continent Threats unstable global fuel price, -increased terrorism scares, government subsidy for competitors -dominance of a few big players due to merger. Strengths -Easy access to finance -excellent customer services -low operational cost Highly skilled workforce SO Strategy that use strength to maximize opportunity: Strategy 1 Market Development ST Strategy that use strength to minimize threats. Strategy 3- Related Diversification (Horizontal Integration) Weakness -weak brand identity -Few flight destination offering WO Strategy that minimize weakness by taking advantage of opportunity Strategy 4- Product Development WT Strategy that minimize and avoid threat Strategy 5 Consolidation Table 4 Ansoff Matrix Existing Product New Product Existing Market -Market Penetration -Consolidation -Product Development New Market -Market Development -Diversification Source: Johnson et al (2009:174) REFERENCES Abioye, O. Ezeobi, O (2008) YarAdua, governors pledge support for Arik [Online] Available from: http://www.punchng.com/Articl.aspx?theartic=Art2008120422503246 [Accessed; 2nd April, 2010] Attitude travel (2010) African low cost no frills airlines [Online] Available from: http://www.attitudetravel.com/lowcostairlines/africa/ [Accessed: 23rd March, 2010] Bailey, E. (1986) Price and Productivity Change following Deregulation: the US experience. The Economic Journal 96(381),1-17 Banfield, P; Kay, R. (2008) Introduction to human resource management. Oxford, Oxford University Press. Bijan, V; Kenneth, F (2005) A total factor productivity based structure for tactical cluster assessment: Empirical Investigation in the airline industry. Journal of Air Transportation. 10(1), 3-19 Carter, N (2010) United Kingdom: Immigration Law Update [Online] Available from: http://www.mondaq.com/article.asp?articleid=92474 [Accessed: 12th March, 2010] Clark, P (2010) Investors in BA focus on open skies talks [Online] Available from: http://www.ft.com/cms/s/883d3e28-19ac-11df-af3e-00144feab49a,Authorised=false.html?_i_location=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcms%2Fs%2F0%2F883d3e28-19ac-11df-af3e-00144feab49a.html_i_referer=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.ft.com%2Fsearch%3FqueryText%3Dlibralisation%2Bof%2Bskies%26ftsearchType%3Dtype_news [Accessed: 13th March 2010] Deirdre, M (2005) Working Time Laws : a Global Perspective : Findings from the ILOs Conditions of Work and Employment Database. Geneva, International Labour Office Bureau International du Travail. Eberl , N. (2010) world travel trends spell opportunity for 2010. [Online] Available from: http://www.bizcommunity.com/Article/196/147/42144.html [Accessed: 14th March, 2010] Eze, C (2010) Arik air announces management team restructuring [online] Available from: http://www.thisdayonline.com/nview.php?id=168400 [Accessed: 12th March, 2010] Financial times (2010) Global airline losses [online] Available from: http://www.ft.com/cms/s/118a1a5e-2d1f-11df-8025-00144feabdc0,Authorised=false.html?_i_location=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcms%2Fs%2F3%2F118a1a5e-2d1f-11df-8025-00144feabdc0.html_i_referer=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.ft.com%2Fsearch%3FqueryText%3Dlibralisation%2Bof%2Bskies%26ftsearchType%3Dtype_news [Accessed: 13th March, 2010] Givoni, M. (2009) Book review: Mobility by John Urry. Transport Reviews, 29(1), 143-144 Harris, H.; Brewster, C.; Sparrow, P. (2003) International Human Resource Management, London, Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. IATA (2010) Jet price Monitor [Online] Available from: http://www.iata.org/whatwedo/economics/fuel_monitor/index.htm [Accessed: 13th March 2010] Johnson, G; Scholes, K; Whittington, R (2009) Fundamentals of Strategy. Essex, Pearson Education Limited. Karp, A (2010) LaHood: White House has an interest in funding NextGen aircraft equipment, [Online] Available from: http://atwonline.com/news/story.html?storyID=19647 [Accessed 14th March 2010] Khanna, T (2010a) Internal Analysis: the VRIO framework. [Lecture] University of Greenwich, 15th February. Khanna, T (2010b) Managing Strategy. [lecture] University of Greenwich, 8th March. Khanna, T (2010c) Corporate level stra

Sunday, October 13, 2019

Hemp: The Earths Greatest Plant :: essays research papers

Hemp: The Truth About the Earth's Greatest Plant   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In a perfect world there would be a product that could serve as a fuel source, a food source, a paper source, a textile source, and this product would be easy to produce in any of its forms. Believe it or not such a product does exist; it is the plant known as hemp. No tree or plant species on earth has the commercial, economic, and environmental potential of hemp. Over 30,000 known products can be manufactured from hemp.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hemp was a common crop grown in the U.S. until 1937 when it was unjustly banned. A common misconception about hemp is that it was banned because it was a widely abused, harmful drug. Hemp was banned because it was a competitive threat to the wood industry. Corporations that profited from the demise of hemp spread rumors that marijuana was a major drug problem, which it was not at the time. They also propagated a campaign that it was a drug that induced uncontrollable violence, another complete falsehood.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hemp is the plant scientifically known as cannabis sativa. It is referred to as hemp when it is grown for its fibers, stem, and seeds. Its leaves and flowers produce the drugs marijuana and hashish. However, sterile breeds of the plant are still illegal to grow in the U.S. Literally millions of wild hemp plants grow throughout the entire Midwest today. Wild hemp, like hemp used for industry purposes, is useless as an intoxicant. Yet U.S. drug law states that one acre of this can result in the owner being sentenced to death. The death penalty exists for growing one acre of perfectly harmless, non-intoxicating weeds!   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hemp can produce any product that paper can produce. The difference is that one acre of hemp can produce four times as much paper as one acre of trees ( a study done by the U.S. Department of Agriculture). Also, a crop of trees takes twenty to fifty years to be ready for harvest where hemp is ready to harvest four times as much in just a year. In addition, hemp produces twice as much fiber per acre as cotton. Twenty five percent of all pesticides in the world are used on cotton, averaging to four pounds of chemicals per acre of cotton in the U.S. every year. Since hemp is a natural repellent to weeds and insects, it needs almost no insecticides or herbicides. If it were substituted for cotton it could greatly reduce the pesticide usage. Again, hemp can produce anything cotton can and what's more it can produce it better.

Saturday, October 12, 2019

Hurricane Katrina: A Man-made Disaster Essay -- Emergency Management E

At 7:10 EDT on August 29, 2005 Hurricane Katrina made landfall, etching lasting memories of those living in and around the New Orleans, Louisiana. It was this day that Hurricane Katrina came ashore and caused what was to be thought as one of the â€Å"most destructive storm in terms of economic losses† ("Hurricane Katrina —," 2007) of all times. Who was to be blamed for the failure in emergence management response and preparation, no one seemed to know or understand. Those left in the wake of this disaster could only stand by and wonder who was at fault, what preparation were to be in place and why wasn’t there a quicker response to help the hundreds of thousands that needed immediate aid and disaster assistance. Failures of the Katrina Disaster According to Howard Dean "Before Katrina, everyone, including America's friends and enemies, believed if something awful happened in the world, you could call in the Americans and they'd fix it" (Dean, 2008). These were the thoughts of Howard Dean and many others as they looked back on President Bush’s legacy of eight years in office. But, was he the only one to blame or should we also look at the chain of command up and down that was responsible for the proper actions that should have been taken? In the corporate world it is believed that if things fail then the blame should be placed on the president or the chief executive office (CEO) of the company because of their responsibility within the corporation, but is that fair? The failure of Katrina was long before written in the failure through the inefficiency of the local, state and federal government when it came to emergence management preparation. Arnold Howitt and Herman Leonard stated in their article, Katrina and the Core Ch... ...s, Louisiana. Works Cited Haddow, G. D., Bullock, J. A., & Coppola, D. P. (2010).Introduction to emergency management. (4th ed., pp. 1-26). Burlington, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann. Howitt, A. M., & Leonard, H. B. (2006). Katrina and the core challenges of disaster response. The Fletcher Forum of World Affairs, 30:1 winter 2006. (2005). Frontline "the storm". (2009). [Web Video]. Retrieved from http://video.pbs.org/video/1555897742/ Dean, H. (2008). Hurricane Katrina left a mark on George W. Bush’s presidency. U.S. News & World Report, Retrieved from http://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2008/12/11/hurricane-katrina-left-a-mark-on-george-w-bushs-presidency. (2007). Hurricane Katrina — most destructive hurricane ever to strike the u.s. national Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), U.S. Department of Commerce, Retrieved from http://www.katrina.noaa.gov/

Friday, October 11, 2019

Keats’ attitude towards women Essay

Q- Keats wrote that he struggled to settle his mind on women, by turns adoring them as angels and reviling them as whores. Discuss Keats’s attitude to women in at least three poems in light of this opinion. Keats once wrote in a letter to Fanny Brawne â€Å"You have ravish’d me away by a Power I cannot resist: and yet I could resist till I saw you; and even since I have seen you I have endeavoured often ‘to reason against the reasons of my Love’- I can do that no more†. The quote, from John Ford’s ‘Tis Pity She’s a Whore, ostensibly encapsulates Keats’ attitude towards women. Through the variation of female characters presented in his work, from the evil seductress in La Belle Dame Sans Merci to chaste pure Madeline from The Eve of St. Agnes, Keats cultivates the impression of being simultaneously enchanted and repelled by the opposite sex, enthralled by their sensuality yet wary of their seemingly alien nature. This repulsion is depicted quite clearly in La Belle Dame Sans Merci or ‘The Beautiful Woman Without Pity’. Keats’ allusion to the medieval romance by French poet Alain Chartier immediately transports the reader into a fairy tale setting. The poem adopts the form of a folk ballad, yet merely mimics traditional love ballads as Keats’ female protagonist is depicted as having a far darker purpose. The contrast between the traditional ballad form and the cruel titular woman creates an ominous tone that continues into the first stanza of the poem. The poem consists of two speakers, the first of which hails the ‘palely loitering’ knight and asks ‘O what can ail thee’. The eeriness of the poem is reinforced when the unknown speaker asks a second time, ‘O what can ail thee, knight at arms’, the repetition of the question creating a ghostly refrain. The alliteration of the ‘L’ sound in ‘palely loitering’ creates a sense of listlessness that is furthered through the bleak landscape where ‘the sedge has wither’d from the lake, and no birds sing’. From this the reader can infer that the knight is a desolate emotional state, which is echoed, by his surroundings. Keats’s use of pathetic fallacy is furthered when the first speaker remarks that the ‘harvest’s done’ thus leaving the knight in a literal winter as well as a figurative one. As knights are often held as paragons of courage and power, Keats makes the reader aware that something preternaturally powerful must be at work. This preternatural being is ‘full beautiful-a faery’s child’, a tempestuous seductress who enthrals the hapless knight. So besotted is he, that he thinks nothing of following her to her ‘elfin grot’ where she ‘lulled’ him asleep. On the one hand, the verb ‘lulled’ can be seen as a treacherous attempt to secure the knight’s affections and allay his suspicions about La Belle’s otherworldly nature, on the other it can be viewed as a calming gesture, that has been misconstrued by the knight like every other aspect of the ethereal woman. Alluding to medieval mythology, Keats paints La Belle as a succubus, a femme fatale able to suck the life from the chivalrous knight through dreams. We, as the reader are only offered the descriptions and opinions of the knight-at-arms, and know nothing of this lady save for his presentation of her. As such, feminist critics could argue that unkind depiction of her character stems from the inversion of patriarchal values depicted in the poem. The knight is not a helpless victim of fancy, for it was he who first approached La Belle, and it was he who made her ‘a garland for her head, and bracelets too, and fragrant zone’. These objects, seemingly tokens of their courtship can be seen not only to decorate but to bind, enslave and enclose. La Belle Dame Sans Merci deviates from popular literacy tropes by depicting a lovelorn male in a state of decline and anguish after being rejected by the cruel female who is the object of his desires. However, instead of creating a female character to be applauded, Keats turns La Belle’s rejection of the knight into a rejection of morality itself. La Belle is never fully described, a longhaired faceless beauty who enslaves the knight with her feminine wiles. As such, La Belle can be seen to represent all women, an idea that is furthered when Keats speaks of ‘pale kings and princess too, pale warriors, death-pale they were all’. The repetition of the sickly adjective ‘pale’ in conjunction with the paradigms of masculinity found in kings, princes, and warriors furthers the idea of female sexuality corrupting the values of men, thus assuring their downfall. Keats creates a direct parallel to the malevolent succubus in La Belle Dame Sans Merci through male protagonist Porphyro from his poem The Eve of Saint Agnes. ‘St. Agnes Eve- Ah, bitter chill it was! The owl for all his feathers was a-cold; the hare limped trembling through the frozen grass, and silent were the flock in woolly fold’. Just like La Belle Dame Sans Merci, Keats through use of natural imagery depicts a desolate surrounding. However, in this case the frozen countryside is the result of a natural winter and not the spells of a cruel enchantress. This idea is further through the listing of animals; the ‘owl’, ‘hare’ and ‘flock’ are vastly different from the birdless wasteland. Keats conjures in the reader the vision of a harsh winter through use of adjectives ‘cold’, ‘frozen’ and ‘chill’. The depressed nature of this bleak landscape is broken by ‘Music’s golden tongue’ and ‘silver snarling trumpets’. The verb ‘snarling’ conjures in the reader images of savage dogs or wolves and is a startling contrast to the muffled snow covered outside world. The harsh ‘Ar’ sound in ‘snarling’ creates a growling effect and effectively conveys the ferocity and fervour of the music being played. Keats’ use of precious metals gold and silver simultaneously emphasise the value of the music, and livens the frozen world female protagonist Madeline lives in. Discussing the presentation of Madeline, critic Bateman states that ‘she’s no Fanny Brawne, she’s timid and subdued’. Paraded in front on numerous gentry who hold no appeal to her, Madeline longs to escape from the public eye and anxiously awaits the ‘hallowed hour’ of St. Agnes Eve. The adjective ‘hallowed’ holds within it highly religious connotations that encapsulates the sacred nature of St. Agnes Night. The use of religious imagery is prevalent throughout the poem, and is expressed quite exquisitely through Madeline. Madeline is a paragon of virtue, a virgin so pious that she ‘seemed a splendid angel†¦save wings for heaven’. Surrounded by the light of the ‘wintry moon’ Madeline is transformed into an ethereal being, one with no  match on earth. Far from evoking Diana, goddess of the moon and chastity, the scintillating moonlight throws â€Å"warm gules† on Madeline’s breast thus drawing attention to her body as ‘she knelt, so pure a thing, free from mortal taint’. The noun ‘taint’ suggests contamination, a polluting stain that cannot be removed. After the touch of a man, Madeline will no longer be pure, and as such loose that which makes her heavenly. Through use of ‘aged creature’ Angela, Keats creates a counterpart to female protagonist Angela. The noun ‘creature’ brings to mind something other, an alien entity that lacks humanity. Far past the age where she can enjoy the innocent and puerile rituals of St. Agnes eve, Angela is depicted as everything that Madeline is not. Old, frail and feeble, she is constantly shaking due to her ‘palsied’ state and seems prone to fits of forgetfulness, reminding Porphyro that he she cannot trust her ‘dizzy head’. She lacks any strength of character and is easily manipulated by Porphyro, thus enabling him to carry out his seduction on Madeline. One the one hand, the constant listing of physical and mental deficiencies allows Keats to create a strong contrast to thriving Madeline, on the other hand, Keats can be seen as conforming to overused stereotypes- the pious young virgin and the feeble elderly crone. As such, his female characters become a flat â€Å"2D† portrayal, lacking any real depth of personality. Jack Stillinger states â€Å"regardless of the extent to which Keats identified with his hero, he introduced enough overtones of evil to make Porphyro’s actions wrong within the structure of the poem†. On the one hand this statement can be held true, with Porphyro’s actions revealing him to be a ‘cruel man’ and ‘impious’ and on the other, Porphyro’s actions take on a romantic light, and any indiscretions made can be seen to be the actions of a lovesick fool. Mirroring La Belle’s presentation as a succubus, Keats once again draws on medieval mythology. This time however, the male not the female entertains supernatural elements. As such, Porphyro becomes an incubus. Like succubae, an incubus holds power over the opposite sex, and often carries out their seductions through dreams. Unlike La Belle however, Keats does not demonise Porphyro for his sexual  nature and portrays his fantasies of possessing Madeline in a romantic light. Despite their similar situations, the difference in the presentation of La Belle and Porphyro truly illustrates Keats’ attitudes towards women. Keats wrote about empathetic identification, claiming â€Å"if a sparrow come before my window, I take part in its existence and pick about the Gravel†. Keats is able to identify with the sparrow, yet seems unable to create female characters who are not enticing femme fettle’s like Lamia and La Belle Dame Sans Merci, or vapid feeble characters like Madeline and Angela. Keats’ treatment and depiction of his written characters is highly similar to his treatment of Fanny Brawne, finding in her aspects of that which disgusted him in La Belle Dame Sans Merci and enchanted him in The Eve of St. Agnes. In a letter to her he wrote â€Å"I cannot live without you, and not just you but chaste you; virtuous you.† As such, that which drew Porphyro to Madeline also drew Keats to Miss Brawne. Keats however, also echoes the obsessive yearning of the knight from La Belle Dame Sans Merci, writing to Fanny â€Å"you are to me an object intensely desirable.† This desire is shown most strongly in Ode To Fanny, one of the last poems Keats wrote after suffering his first lung haemorrhage. As Keats drifted closer towards death, his infatuation with Fanny became something of an obsession with critic Richardson claiming that Keats â€Å"had transfigured Fanny in his imagination, his passion creating in her the beauty which for him became the truth†. Keats ascribes Fanny with miraculous healing abilities, imploringly asking her to ‘let my spirit blood! O ease my heart.’ Bloodletting was an ancient practice said to relive the body of ill humours and cure maladies. Is this case however, it is not Keats’ blood that is causing his ailments but his damaged soul. Only Fanny can cure his heartache, making him entirely dependant on her. Throughout the ode, Keats is intensely focused on Fanny’s virginity, painfully aware that he will never be able to claim her sexually. Keats calls her his ‘silver moon’ and asks that she stay ‘unravished’ by another’s ‘amorous burn’. Through mentioning moonlight, Keats invokes Artemis, Greek Goddess of chastity entreating Fanny to remain pure. The long vowel sounds  in ‘amorous burn’ speak of consuming passion while the verb ‘burn’ contains connotations of fiery lust, thus furthering the idea of Keats’ fixation with Fanny’s sexuality. Whilst the colour silver is typically linked to purity and the moon, it will also tarnishes over time thus loosing its lustre. Keats knows that Fanny, like the silver, will one day no longer be pure, yet he still asks that no other ‘with a rude hand break the sacramental cake’. The use of the religious metaphor ‘sacramental cake’ to r ather crudely refer to the hymen, reduces Fanny to nothing more than a body for a man to sate himself in. Keats discounts her worth as a person in favour of highlighting her worth as a sexual object meant only for the pleasure of men. Keats employs the use of simplistic rhyme when stating ‘must not a woman be, a feather on the sea’. The juvenile rhyme scheme brings to mind that of a nursery rhyme, an idea that is corroborated by the equally infantile rhythm. Seemingly scornful of her emotions, and rather unable to comprehend that women are able to know their own minds, Keats wrote to Fanny â€Å"you do not feel as I do- you do not know what it is to love†. It is perhaps this view that nurtures Keats’ distrust and envy which prompts his rather hyperbolic proclamation ‘may my eyes close, Love! On their last repose’. The use of the rather clichà ©d â€Å"I would die without your love† conjures in the reader images of powerful emotional manipulation. The reader has to question if Keats is really in love with Fanny like he claims, or if his obsessive infatuation has created an idealised image of what love is, and projected it on the object of his affections. Despite what other characteristic or personality aspects they may possess, Keats paints women as seductresses, entrapping the hearts of unsuspecting men. In regards to the women he writes about, even pure chaste Madeline is presented as having ensnared poor Porphyro. Whilst some of this can be excused due to oppressive patriarchal paradigms that presented women as objects to be obtained, the vast majority of the unfair presentation stems from Keats’ own feelings and opinions. Keats is seemingly unable to view women as fully autonomous human beings, and treats even Fanny as a succubus that has enthralled him, yet even so he elevates her into an ideal. The paradoxical nature of their relationship- characterised by both love and  loathing can be seen to be reflected in his attitudes towards women, leaving him simultaneously enchanted and repelled. Bibliography http://feminism.eserver.org/theory/papers/lilith/labelle.html http://www.keatsian.co.uk/keats-poetry-belle.php http://www.mibba.com/Reviews/Book/4500/John-Keats-La-Belle-Dame-sans-Merci/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/english_literature/poetry_ccea/loveanddeath/labelledamesanmerci/revision/1/ http://www.englweb.umd.edu/englfac/JRudy/Keats-letters.pdf http://www1.umassd.edu/corridors/bestessay259.html http://literarism.blogspot.co.nz/2011/03/eve-of-st-agnes-keats.html http://research.library.mun.ca/353/3/sensuous_embodiment.pdf Richardson, Joanna. Fanny Brawne: A Biography. Norwich: Jarrold and Sons, 1952. Print.

Thursday, October 10, 2019

Pattern people’s development Essay

2.3 Explain how theories of development and framework to support development influence current practice. In this work I will refer to the main group of psychologists that are associated with child development and their consequent impact on the way we care for and teach our children. It is clearly a vast subject, but I hope to identify the most important theories and show how they are implemented in order to provide each child with the greatest chance of reaching their potential. Psychologists have spent whole lifetimes studying how we develop socially and emotionally. Some of the key theories are described below. Psychodynamic Theories Psychodynamic theories of personality are strongly influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud, and emphasise the influence of the unconscious mind and sometimes forgotten childhood experiences on personality. Psychodynamic theories include Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual stage theory and Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. Sigmun d Freud believed the three components of personality were the id, the ego, and the superego. The id is responsible for all needs and urges, while the superego for ideals and moral. The ego then moderates between the demands of the id, the superego, and reality in order to produce a satisfactory conclusion or compromise. Erik Erikson discusses psychosocial stages, and believed that personality progressed through a series of stages, with certain conflicts arising at each stage. Success in any stage depended upon successfully overcoming these conflicts He placed importance on the role of culture and society and the conflicts that can take place within the ego itself, whereas Freud emphasised the conflict between the id and the superego. According to Erikson, the ego develops as it successfully resolves difficulties of a specifically social nature. This involves establishing trust in others, developing a sense of your own identity within society, and helping children prepare themselves for their future. Erikson furthers Freudian ideas by focusing on the ego as ever-changing and creative, and he believed that the stages of personality development continued throughout our lifespan. Behavioural Theories These suggest that personality is a result of interaction  between the individual and the environment. Behavioural theorists study observable and measurable behaviour, and reject theories that take internal thoughts and feelings into account. B.F.Skinner Skinner believed that children learn through experience or conditioning. He coined the term ‘operant conditioning’, meaning simply changing behaviour by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response. Neutral operants are responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behaviour being repeated. Reinforcers are either positive or negative responses from the environment that will increase the probability of that behaviour being repeated. Punishers are responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated. The punishment weakens the behaviour. As children we constantly try out different behaviours, and learnt from their consequences, sometimes the hard way! Positive rewards/reinforcements for good behaviour are the basis of many behaviour management techniques. Albert Bandura Bandura developed the idea of ‘modelling’ or social learning, based on the idea that children will instinctively copy the adults around them. Bandura’s experiment where children watched a film of adults hitting dolls suggests that children learn social behaviour such as aggression through the process of observation learning, i.e. by observing the behaviour of another person. This study has important implications for the effects of media violence on children, in that the learned aggression was seen as acceptable behaviour. There is much evidence that a child who witnesses or experiences violence at home may also develop aggressive behaviour. Conversely, a child who witnesses kind or thoughtful behaviour can be seen to develop these qualities because of their need to emulate the behaviour of familiar or significant others. Humanist theories These theories emphasise the notion of free will and individual experiences in the development of personality. Humanist theorists put forward the concept of self-actualisation, defined as an inherent need for personal advancement that will motivate and influence behaviour Abraham Maslow wanted to understand what motivates people. His theory was that individuals possess motivational  ideas that are not linked to rewards or unconscious desires. In 1943, Maslow stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs, when one of those needs is fulfilled, that person will move on to fulfil the next and carries on in this way. The original ‘hierarchy of needs’ five-stage model is as follows; 1. Biological and Physiological needs- air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep. 2. Safety needs – protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, and freedom from fear. 3. Social Needs – belonging, affection and love, from family, friends, romantic relationships, work colleagues. 4. Esteem needs – achievement, independence, status, dominance, prestige, self-respect, and respect from others. 5. Self-Actualisation needs – fulfilment of personal potential, seeking personal growth and ultimate experiences. Carl Rogers was a humanistic psychologist who agreed with the main assumptions of Abraham Maslow, but added that for a person to â€Å"grow†, they also needed an environment providing them with genuineness (openness and self-disclosure), acceptance (to be viewed with unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being listened to and understood).Without these, Rogers thought that relationships and healthy personalities would not develop as they should, and likened this to a tree being unable to grow without sunl ight and water. Rogers also believed that every person has the ability to achieve their goals, wishes and desires in life. Self-actualisation was the term that was used to describe this pinnacle of development. Biological theories This theory puts forward that genetics are responsible for personality. Research on’ heritability’ (defined as ‘the extent to which genetic individual differences contribute to individual differences in observed behaviour’) suggests that there is a link between genetics and personality traits. Psychologists in this area assume that behaviour and experiences are caused by activity in the nervous system of the body. Things that people think, feel, say and do are caused by  electrochemical events occurring within and between the neurones that make up their nervous system, in particular those in the brain. Because the development of the brain is determined (at least partly) by genes we have inherited, then it seems reasonable to assume that behaviour could be seen to be influenced by genetic factors. Our inherited genes are also thought to be the result of evolution, so psychologists in this area also reason that behavioural and psychological characteristics may have evolutionary origins. Hans Eysenck linked aspects of personality to biological progressions, for instance he proposed that introverted people had a high level of brain arousal, leading them to avoid stimulation. Conversely Eysenck believed extroverts had lower levels of brain arousal, which led them to seek out exciting experiences. Social psychologists argue that behavioural reasoning is almost impossible without reference to relationships with others, and also suggest that culture, especially that of social learning and language, has a critical impact on thought and behaviour. It could be said that the biological approach to behaviour focuses on genetic and biological influences to the exclusion of social and cultural influences. However, the biological approach has contributed an enormous amount to our understanding of the fundamental processes of behaviour, and has provided explanations for a range of psychological disorders such as depression. Cognitive theories Cognitive psychology focuses on the way in which we process information, then looks at how we treat the information, or stimuli, and finally how this treatment leads to our response. There is a great interest in the variables that connect stimulus/input and response/output. Cognitive psychologists study these internal processes including perception, attention, language, memory and thinking, resulting in a huge amount of research into how children develop intellectual skills. Jean Piaget Piaget showed that intelligence is the result of a natural sequence of stages and that it develops as a result of the changing interaction between the child and its environment. Children are born with a basic and genetically inherited mental formation on which all subsequent knowledge and learning is based. Piaget became intrigued with the  reasons children gave for their wrong answers on the questions that required logical thinking. He believed that these incorrect answers revealed important differ ences between the thinking of adults and children, the common assumption in psychology was that children are less competent thinkers than adults, but Piaget showed that young children simply think in a completely different way. Piaget’s theory differs from others in that he is only concerned with children, rather than all learners, and focuses purely on development. Children construct an understanding of their environment, and then will experience differences between what they know and what they discover in the world around them. These ‘adaption processes’ enable the transition from one developmental stage to another, one of the most well-known of these are ‘schemas’, which a child will develop to help make sense of a changing environment. For example, a child may think that all dogs are black because they have a pet dog that is black, so on seeing a white dog, the schema will need to change to cope with this new information. Jerome Bruner Bruner believed that as children develop they use different ways of representing the world around them. In his research on the cognitive development of children he proposed three modes of representation: Enactive (0 – 1 years) This appears first, and involves encoding action-based information and storing it in our memory. For example, a baby might remember the action of shaking a rattle in the form of an actual movement, so it is a muscle memory. Iconic (1 – 6 years) This is where information is stored visually in the form of a mental images. For some people this is a conscious happening. This could explain why it is very often helpful to have diagrams or illustrations to accompany written or verbal information, so that the information can be visualised. Symbolic (7 years onwards) This develops last, and is the storing of information in the form of a code or symbol. Symbols are flexible, and can be manipulated, grouped, classified etc., so the child is not limited by actions or images. In this symbolic stage, knowledge is stored primarily as words/language, or mathematical symbols. These are known as modes of representation, and rather than being orderly stages of development, they are only loosely sequential and are gradually integrated into each other. Bruner’s work also suggests that even  a very young child is capable of learning any material as long as the work is worded or presented appropriately. Lev Vygotsky Zone of Proximal Development. This is where the potential learning capabilities of a child is determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or by interactions/collaborative working with more capable peers. Sociocultural Theory. Vygotsky also suggested that human development results from energetic interaction between individuals and society, where children learn gradually and continuously from parents and teachers. Trait theory This was put forward in 1936, by psychologist Gordon Allport, and unlike other theories, the trait approach focuses on the differences between people, and how the combination and interaction of similar traits creates a unique individual. Trait theory is aims to identify and measure these individual personality characteristics. A ‘Big Five’ theory emerged, which represents five fundamental traits that interact to form our personalities. The exact labels for each dimension are not set in stone by psychologists, but the following are used most commonly Extroversion Agreeableness Conscientiousness Neuroticism Openness Most people would agree that people can be described adequately based upon their personality traits, but there are some problems with this theory as it doesn’t address how or why personality differences develop, and also that traits can be a poor predictor of behaviour. The National Curriculum is a government framework that sets out a clear, full and con stitutional right to learning for all pupils. It determines the content of what will be taught, and sets achievement objectives for learning. It also determines how their performance will be assessed and reported. A successful national curriculum should be clear and comprehensive, and convey a full understanding of the skills and knowledge  that young people will gain at school. It should allow schools to meet the individual learning needs of pupils, whilst developing a strong character and ethos that is rooted in their local communities. It also provides a clear framework for all those involved in education to provide support for young people in their pursuit of further learning. Alongside the national curriculum is a government initiative known as ‘Every Child Matters’, or ECM. This applies to children and young adults up to the age of 19, or 24 for those with disabilities. Its main aims are that every child, whatever their background or circumstances, has a right to the support they need in order to- stay safe be healthy, enjoy and achieve, economic well-being positive contribution It is one of the most i mportant policy initiative and development programmes in relation to children, and was introduced partly in response to the shocking death of Victoria Climbià ¨ in 2000. In the past it has been felt that children and families have received poor service because of the failure of professionals to either understand each other’s roles or to work together effectively. The agencies in partnership may include children’s centres, early years, schools, children’s social work services, primary and secondary health services, playwork, and Child and Adolescent Mental Health services (CAMHS). ECM was an attempt to eliminate this poor service, stressing the importance of all professionals working with children, and making them aware that working together in the interests of the child was of the utmost importance. Reading through the aims and initiatives in both these government-led frameworks there are clear correlations with some of the work that has been carried out by psychologists into child development. Piaget’s work was extremely influential in developing educational policy and teaching. A review of primary education by the UK government in 1966 was based strongly on Piaget’s theory, and the result of this review led to the publication of the Plowden report in 1967. Discovery learning was the idea that children learn best through doing and actively exploring, and was seen as central to the  transformation of our primary school curriculum.it was also suggested there should be more flexibility in the curriculum, using the environment to learn, and to recognise the importance of each child’s progress not just measurable evaluations. Piaget’s theory is based upon biological maturation, promotes the notion of ‘readiness’ as being important, in other words, the right time for certain information or concepts to be taught is when they have reached the appropriate stage of cognitive development. A learner, according to Piaget, should be active, not passive, because problem-solving skills cannot be taught, they must be discovered. In the classroom this translates as pupil centred learning, where the role of the teaching staff is to facilitate learning rather than by direct tuition. Within the classroom the following methods are used; Focus on the learning process, not just the end result. Use active methods that involve rediscovering, or reconstructing ‘truths’ Use both collaborative and individual activities, as children can learn from each other as well as on their own. Devise situations that present problems for the child to solve. Regularly evaluate development levels so that appropriate tasks can be set for children. For Bruner, the purpose of education should not be just to impart knowledge, but to facilitate a child’s thinking and problem solving skills, so they can then be transferred to a range of situations. Bruner opposed Piaget’s notion of readiness, and argued that it was a waste of time trying to match the difficulty of subject material to a child’s cognitive stage of development. This means students are held back by teachers as certain topics are deemed too challenging so must only be taught when the teacher believes the child has reached the appropriate state of cognitive maturity. Bruner believed that a child of any age is capable of understanding complex information, and proposed the idea of the ‘spiral curriculum’. This is teaching that is structured so that complex ideas can be taught at a simplified level first, and then re-visited at gradually increasing levels of difficulty later on. Teaching this way should lead to children being able to solve problems by themselves. We can see then that the role of the teacher should not be to teach information by  rote learning, but instead to facilitate the learning process. A good teacher will design lessons that help children discover the connection between small amounts of information. To do this a teacher must provide children with the information they need, but without organising it for them A contemporary educational application of Vygotsky’s theories is known as â€Å"reciprocal teaching†, and is used to improve the children’s ability to learn from text. In this method, teac hing staff and children work together in learning and practicing four key skills: summarising, questioning, clarifying, and predicting. In my voluntary work at Lady Bay Primary, I use this when reading with children, either individually or in groups. Often the children offer the extra information even before I have prompted them. This is the beginning of a gradual reduction of the teacher’s role in the learning process. Vygotsky is also linked to instructional ideas such as â€Å"scaffolding† and â€Å"apprenticeship†, in which a teacher or more advanced peer can help structure or organise a task so that a child can work on it successfully. Vygotsky’s theories are relevant to the current interest in collaborative learning, suggesting that when working together in groups there should be different levels of ability so the more advanced children can help those who are working at a lower level of ability. Again this is a system that works well within my class of year 1’s, and they help and encourage each other in the task almost without noticing. B.F. Skinner’s research into behaviour modification has translated into the classroom in several ways, token economy and behaviour shaping. Token economy is a system in which targeted behaviours are reinforced with tokens (secondary reinforcers) and are later exchanged for rewards (primary reinforcers). Tokens can be in the form of fake money, buttons, poker chips, stickers, etc. and rewards can range be anything from snacks to privileges/activities. Within our school we use this system, in more than one guise. Our ‘dragons gold’ tokens are given out for a variety of different positive behaviours, and after reaching a certain amount the child is able to choose an activity as a reward. An even simpler way of instilling positive reinforcement in behaviour modification is by giving compliments, approval, encouragement, and affirmation when appropriate. The current practice in any child/young people’s development programme needs  to meet certain requirements aimed at their maturity level. It must also respect a child’s psychological needs and promote feelings of safety, security and belonging. By promoting interactive learning, and building conceptual understanding a curriculum will uphold and encourage the advancement of learning abilities, and provide children with a solid foundation on which to build their life and learning skills.